In PWH, an increase in the expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) DR and CD38 + on CD8 + T-lymphocytes (HLA-DR + CD38 + CD8) is associated with the continuing neuronal injury and progression of HAND (Liu et al. 1997; Robertson et al. 2020; Ratto-Kim et al. 2018). Here, CD38 is linked to HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder.