TNF and cancer: Several studies have shown that gingerol modulates a variety of cell signaling pathways linked to cancer, including nuclear factors (NF‐κB), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), activator protein‐1 (AP‐1), β‐catenin, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), mitogen‐activated protein kinases (MAPK), and pro‐inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF‐α) and cyclooxygenase‐2 (COX‐2) (Jemal et al., 2009; Ling et al., 2010).