TNF and infection: measured by mRNA expression showed strong upregulation of different cytokines (gamma interferon [IFN-γ], interleukin-12 [IL-12], tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α], IL-6, IL-10, IL-4, and transforming growth factor-β [TGF-β]) induced by infection with all parasite strains, as shown by the results in Fig. 3C.