TNF and infection: Our results showed that in the two infection models, SARS-CoV-2 was the most potent inducer of proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α, and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand-10 [CXCL-10]), which play critical roles in immune dysregulation in patients with CoV disease 2019 (COVID-19) (17).