TNF and infection: Notably, our results showed an upregulated transcriptional expression of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α), adhesion molecules (VCAM-1, ICAM-1) and chemokines (CXCL1 and CXCL2) after infection in both brain cortex (Fig. 6d–f) and hippocampus (Fig. 6g–i).