TNF and infection: This protein is synthesized and released at sites of infection/inflammation by a number of immune and non-immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and cells of the osteoblastogenic lineage, after stimulation with primary proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α and IL-1β) and microbial components (e.g., LPS) [22,23,24,26].