In studies of advanced NSCLC and ESCC [16], they found that TGF-β1 secreted by CAFs utilized the c-Jun N-terminal kinase/activator protein 1(JNK/AP1) signaling pathway to promote the expression of Ln-γ2 in cancer cells, thereby building a protective barrier and limiting the penetration of T cells into the cancer nest (Fig. 4a). This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.