TNF and pulmonary fibrosis: TNF-α is one of the best-characterized inducers of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), and both TNF-α and NF-κB signaling are upregulated in bleomycin-injured lung tissue.64 It was also noted that suppression of NF-κB signaling reduces the differentiation of LR-MSCs to myofibroblasts and diminishes lung fibrosis.64 These data suggest there is a link between inflammatory signaling in the promotion of LR-MSC differentiation to myofibroblasts.