To determine whether TGF-β mediates SMAD3 effects on AR signaling, we treated PCa cells (Rv1, C4-2, or PC3) with TGF-β and performed western blot analysis of phospho-SMAD3 and phospho-SMAD2, which are known markers of TGF-β signaling activation. Here, TGFB1 is linked to posterior cortical atrophy.