TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: The cytokines interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) are increased in IBD patients [45], inducing TJ proteins endocytosis and IECs apoptosis through the RhoA/ROCK pathway and the activation of Rac1 triggering the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, respectively [46, 47].