CSF2 and infection: • GM-CSF deficiency or insufficiency may result from alveolar epithelial dysfunction as collateral effect of or direct infection with infectious pathogens impairing GM-CSF-secreting-type II alveolar epithelial cells (8, 9) Other stresses (i.e. oxidative stress) can lead to suppressed alveolar epithelial cell GM-CSF expression as well (10).• Pathogens overwhelm and dysregulate the immune system via either an overly pro-inflammatory response (hyperinflammation) or an overly anti-inflammatory response (immunoparalysis), leading to life-threatening organ damage (9)