TNF and atherosclerosis: Th1 cells promote atherosclerosis development by secreting pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IFN-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), IL-2, IL-3, and lymphotoxin to induce chronic inflammation in the atherosclerotic lesions and facilitate foam cells formation (62), which might eventually cause dysfunction and erosion of endothelial cells integrity, resulting in thrombus formation and myocardial infarction or ischemic stroke.