TLR4 and medical procedure: In a mice model of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO), the authors concluded that in focal ischemic stroke, enteric neuronal apoptosis is caused by a mechanism involving galectin-3 release triggered both central and peripheral and further activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) and transforming growth factor- β- activated kinase 1 (TAK1)/AMP activated kinase (AMPK) pathway, suggesting a neuroinflammatory reaction transmitted from CNS to ENS [28].