TGFB1 and cancer: Although transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a tumor suppressor in pre-malignant cells, inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis, and over the course of tumor progression, TGF-β transforms to a multipotent cytokine responsible for creating an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment via the and reprogramming cellular metabolism and the modulation of the proliferation and differentiation of immune cells and the matrix composition [114–116].