To confirm the causal links between Mg2+ dynamics, mitochondrial bioenergetics and PA-induced parthanatos in HCC cells, MLKL-deficient and -proficient Hepa 1–6 cell culture was supplemented with exogenous MgCl2 to increase Mg2+ entry into mitochondria27, which resulted in the reduced mitochondrial ROS (Supplementary Fig. S5b) and decreased nuclear translocation of AIF (Fig. 5d). This evidence concerns the gene AIFM1 and hepatocellular carcinoma.