VSIG4 and cholesteryl ester measurement: To clarify the roles of candidate disease characteristic biomarkers in the development of AF-CE, the connections between the expression of the three candidate genes (C1QC, CFD, and VSIG4) and clinical pathological features (including age, sex, TIA, cardiogenic diseases, palpitation, dyspnoea, hypertension, smoking, left atrial diameter, and diabetes) in AF-CE patients were analysed.