TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: The nine pathways associated with intestinal injury were apoptosis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), p53, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), toll-like receptor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR), phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase-Akt (PI3K-Akt), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (Figure 9).