Similar results were obtained in plate cloning experiment and flow cytometry experiment (Fig. 5G–H). These results indicated that TGF-β1 secreted by M2-TAMs could mediate ESCC stemness and contribute to cisplatin resistance through the TGFβR1-Smad2/3 pathway. This evidence concerns the gene TGFBR1 and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.