TNF and HIV infectious disease: Some studies also showed lower TNF production and cellular proliferation in MTB-specific peripheral T cells in HIV/MTB co-infection individuals than in individuals with HIV infection (Mendonca et al., 2007; Geldmacher et al., 2008), and HIV/MTB co-infected macrophages released fewer TNF-α than macrophages infected with only MTB (Kumawat et al., 2016).