TNF and Alzheimer disease: In Aβ1-42 in toxicated Wistar rat models of AD, astaxanthin dose-dependently and significantly reversed the cognitive and memory impairment that was evinced by reduced levels of Aβ1-42, AChE, TNF-α, oxidative stress, GSK-3β, and IRS-S307 activity in the hippocampus [172].