Further, it increasesoxidative stress in the hippocampus.45,46 There arereports of the attenuated immune system upon d-galactosetreatment mimicking an aging brain.45,47 It also haltsneurogenesis in the hippocampus and dentate gyrus regions of the brain48 and disrupts calcium homeostasis in the cortexand hippocampus, creating excitotoxicity conditions similar to thosefound in dementia cases.49 This model canbe used in insulin resistance-associated AD cases because d-galactose is a sugar and produces an insulin-resistance-like state. Here, INS is linked to Alzheimer disease.