During early pregnancy, GM-CSF in blood serum increases dramatically, and the levels decrease if pregnancy is terminated.23Reduced GM-CSF levels have been associated with miscarriage.4Research on the use of GM-CSF in the IVF process has shown promising results.16The addition of recombinant GM-CSF to the culture medium has been shown to increase the success rate of IVF.24, 25, 26. Here, CSF2 is linked to spontaneous abortion.