These observations represent a new resource in understanding the innate immune mechanisms underlying the link between COPD and lung cancer onset and pave the way to future studies focused on larger cohorts aimed at dissect the exact role of PD-L1 in the onset and progression of COPD in the context of lung cancer and vice-versa, and the mechanisms by which CS promotes tumorigenesis and COPD. The gene discussed is CD274; the disease is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.