• Inhibits vascular endothelial and microvascular endothelial cell proliferation and survival• Increases expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin as pro-atherogenic surface molecules in endothelial cells (in vitro)• Inhibits post-insulin receptor pathway and decreases insulin sensitivity• Potently inhibits VEGFR leading to HTN*• Inhibits mast-cell KIT receptor, thus impairs endothelial cell regeneration, or sensitizes the endothelium to atherosclerosis generation#. Here, INS is linked to atherosclerosis.