However, GM-CSF can have potent immunostimulatory and adjuvant properties, and early clinical trials administering cancer patients with irradiated GM-CSF-transduced tumor cells showed enhanced antitumor immunity and favourable outcomes, for example in metastatic melanoma (65, 66), non-small cell lung cancer (67), and prostate cancer (68). Here, CSF2 is linked to metastatic melanoma.