During the early stages of T1DM, due to the presence of autoantigens on the surface of β-cells, immune cells, especially T lymphocytes and pro-inflammatory macrophages, infiltrate the islet and release pro-inflammatory factors such as interleukin (IL)-β, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), and interferon gamma (IFN-γ). Here, TNF is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.