TNF and Zika virus infectious disease: Several studies have identified that Zika virus infection leads to cell proliferation and Hofbauer cell hyperplasia [109] In addition, some studies have shown that infection-induced HBC hyperplasia coincides with the induction of type I interferon, pro-inflammatory cytokines [39], and an increase in TNF, which is also associated with a decrease in the suppressor molecule of the cytokine signaling SOCS1, in cases of chronic villitis caused by Zika virus infection [105].