INS and Insulin resistance: In a popular article by De Fronzo [73], eight factors were indicated as relevant for glucose homeostasis: in addition to decreased glucose uptake by muscles (insulin resistance) and decreased insulin secretion (beta-cell dysfunction), other relevant factors were identified in increased glucagon secretion (alpha-cell dysregulation), increased hepatic glucose production, increased lipolysis, increased glucose reabsorption, decreased incretin effect, and neurotransmitter dysfunction.