TNF and colitis: qPCR analyses also indicated severe colon tissue inflammation in mice with DSS-induced colitis, with a marked increase in mRNA levels of macrophage-related genes (F4/80 encoded by Adgre1 and CD11c), chemokine CCL2 and its receptor (CCR2), various cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β), adhesion molecule ICAM-1, and serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, MCP-1, and IL-1β (Figure 5B).