Importantly, NPM1/B23 plays functional roles in different stages of viral replication including nuclear import, viral genome transcription and assembly, as well as final particle formation by directly interacting with various viral proteins in different cellular compartments during relevant infections, as exemplified with Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), HIV, HBV, HCV, HDV, HPV and HSV-1 (Nouri et al., 2015; Rawlinson and Moseley, 2015; Abraham et al., 2017). This evidence concerns the gene NPM1 and infection.