TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: In the DSS-induced IBD model, protein carbonyl content increased in wild-type mice but not in PHB transgenic mice during DSS induction, and protein carbonyl content was the most prevalent and sufficient indicator of severe oxidative protein damage, suggesting that PHB overexpression reduces oxidative stress, mitigates mucosal barrier breakdown, and alleviates the inflammatory response by reducing the IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ mRNA levels induced by DSS in IBD [138].