TGFB1 and endothelial dysfunction: To determine the contribution of TGF-β signaling to S-mediated endothelial dysfunction, we antagonized TGF-β signaling via antibody blockade of TGFBR1 and found that cells treated with anti-TGFBR1 were less sensitive to S-mediated endothelial hyperpermeability compared to IgG isotype control conditions (Figs. 7C and S7A).