TNF and infection: TNF-α is a potent physiological inducer of NF-κB leading to NF-κB responsive gene expression (Duh et al., 1989; Lowenthal et al., 1989; Osborn et al., 1989), and can restrict infection by influenza virus (IAV; Seo and Webster, 2002), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis E virus (HEV; Wang et al., 2016) and poxviruses (Bartee et al., 2009).