After acute cerebral ischemia, damaged neurons and glial cells secrete proinflammatory factors such as IL-1β and TNF-α, which increase the permeability of the blood‒brain barrier by directly affecting multiple capillaries, leading to cerebral edema and allowing peripheral immune cells and cytokines to enter brain tissue, further aggravating inflammation and brain injury (Fu et al. 2015). Here, TNF is linked to brain ischemia.