Haapasalo et al. (Haapasalo et al., 2003) analyzed 433 cases of astrocytoma and showed that the expression of thioredoxin reductase-1 (TrxR1) was upregulated in more than 66% of cases, which was significantly associated with relatively high proliferative activity and poor prognosis. Here, TXNRD1 is linked to astrocytoma (excluding glioblastoma).