TNF and Sepsis: In vivo studies showed that reactive astrocytes (A1) phenotype is also induced by TNF-α and IL-1β after being stimulated by LPS [53], the current study also reported similar results in cultured cells, thus it is conceivable that there exist a synergy between astrocytes activation and upregulation of pro-inflammatory mediators (TNF-α and IL-1β) during sepsis.