The authors noted a significant increase in gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL1B, TNF, IL6, IL8, and anti-inflammatory factors, such as IL10 and TGFB in biopsies from perianal lesions of AF patients compared with control samples (obtained from skin wound resections unrelated to AF) [31]. Here, TGFB1 is linked to atrial fibrillation.