EPO and Alzheimer disease: Preclinical: In a comparative study assessing the protective benefits of IN-EPO versus invasive intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration in an Aβ25–35 non-transgenic mouse model of AD, ICV-EPO at a dose of 125–500 μg/kg, IN-EPO at a much lower dose of 62–250 μg/kg, and low sialic form termed ‘Neuro-EPO’ (also intranasal) significantly prevented Aβ-induced learning deficits, hippocampal neurodegeneration, and reduced levels of neuroinflammatory markers tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) [30].