TNF and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency: SCFAs are capable to modulate a variety of immune and epigenetic pathways, such as barrier function in intestinal epithelial cells, obesity-associated inflammation, release of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α from macrophages, cytokine-associated nuclear factor kappa-B signaling pathway [43] and inhibition of histone deacetylase [43–46].