MAPK14 and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: ROS (directly or indirectly) influence and potentiate inflammation in the lung via the activation of stress kinases such as JNK, MAPK, p38 and PI3K, or transcriptional factors as NF-κB, AP-1 and Nrf2 [241,250], strongly related with the pathogenesis of COPD, and asthma.