GPR132 and cancer: Lactate signaling has been shown to directly shape the activation, proliferation and metabolic activity of immune cells33; for example, macrophages in the presence of lactate can be induced to polarize to M2 macrophages by sensing lactate via the gpr132 receptor36, and M2-like macrophages have been shown to exhibit a higher phagocytic ability toward E. coli and cancer cell targets than M1-like macrophages37.