Also in support for the first interpretation, no substantial differences were observed in the 1980 characteristics including BMI, insulin and glucose levels when participants of YFS were stratified according to the subsequent antibiotic exposure quartiles Moreover, based on the observational data it is not possible to differentiate whether the relationship observed between antibiotic courses and metabolic outcomes is due to treatment (antibiotics) or infections per se. The gene discussed is INS; the disease is infection.