PVALB and memory impairment: Since each Pvalb neuron regulates the activity of more than a hundred pyramidal neurons (22) and Pvalb neurons are involved in memory consolidation via coordinating and stabilizing CA1 network dynamics (26) and mediating hippocampal-neocortical interactions following training (27, 36), our findings provide a plausible explanation as to why the loss of a small number of neurons after repeated anesthesia results in a robust and persistent memory impairment.