This was associated with increased intracellular oxidative stress, indicated by elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) levels (Figure 1F), as well as induction of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α (Figure 1G) and TGF-β (Figure 1H) in kidney macrophages of CKD mice compared with controls. Here, TNF is linked to chronic kidney disease.