TNF and infection: Generally, in the acute phase of infection, proinflammatory cytokines that include IFN-γ, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-1β, and IL-12 are related to parasite control, and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, IL-4, and transforming growth factor-beta [TGF-β]) result in opposing actions (3, 31).