TNF and Parkinson disease: To elucidate the exact factors responsible for the neuroinflammation associated with PD and the effects of cPS1P on the inflammatory cytokines, we checked the expression of phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinases (p-JNK), phosphorylated nuclear factor kB (p-NF-kB), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin 1-beta (IL-1β) in the SNpc and striatum.