GDF15 and breast carcinoma: These pleiotropic effects of GDF15 in breast cancer (stimulating proliferation/growth, invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and stemness), are also applicable to other cancer types; indeed, GDF15 has been observed to contribute to tumor progression through one or more of these effects in gastric, pancreatic, colorectal, prostate, and cervical cancer, among several others (18, 21, 80–83).