These pleiotropic effects of GDF15 in breast cancer (stimulating proliferation/growth, invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and stemness), are also applicable to other cancer types; indeed, GDF15 has been observed to contribute to tumor progression through one or more of these effects in gastric, pancreatic, colorectal, prostate, and cervical cancer, among several others (18, 21, 80–83). This evidence concerns the gene GDF15 and cancer.