TNF and ischemia: It was reported that activated microglia are the main sources of several cytokines (e.g., TNF-α and IL-1β) during ischemia, especially at the acute phase (Greenway and Dolman, 1999; Clausen et al., 2008), and minocycline, a commonly used agent to suppress microglial activation, could reduce infarct volume, preserve BBB integrity, and promote functional recovery in experimental stroke (Yang et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2021).