TNF and infection: For instance, patients treated with corticosteroids or TNF antagonists have increased risk of infection (Rosenblum and Howard 2011; Murdaca et al., 2015; Shah and Itzkowitz 2022), and corticosteroid use increases both the risk of fracture (Kanis et al., 2004; Mitra 2011) and the risk of developing type II diabetes (Blackburn et al., 2002).