TNF and colitis: Enriched A. muciniphila eroded the mucus layer, impairing the intestinal barrier, which in turn posed greater susceptibility to colitis in mice, and induced excessive secretion of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) (Desai et al., 2016; Seregin et al., 2017; Khan et al., 2020).